According to a study titled Coffee consumption and health: umbrella review of meta-analyses of multiple health outcomes, it has been found that coffee consumption is more often associated with benefit than harm for a range of health outcomes across exposures including high versus low, any versus none, and one extra cup a day. Consumption was also associated with a lower risk of several specific cancers and neurological, metabolic, and liver conditions. There was evidence of a non-linear association between consumption and some outcomes, with summary estimates indicating largest relative risk reduction at intakes of three to four cups a day versus none, including all cause mortality (relative risk 0.83, 95% confidence interval 0.83 to 0.88), cardiovascular mortality (0.81, 0.72 to 0.90), and cardiovascular disease (0.85, 0.80 to 0.90). High versus low consumption was associated with an 18% lower risk of incident cancer (0.82, 0.74 to 0.89). The study concluded that coffee consumption seems generally safe within usual levels of intake, with summary estimates indicating the largest risk reduction for various health outcomes at three to four cups a day, and more likely to benefit health than harm.
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